Table 5 Summary of recent publications on changing WFH patterns in Europe

Switzerland (Huang et al. 2023)

This study examines the impact of WFH on travel behaviour during the post-lockdown period using GPS tracking data collected in Switzerland from 2019 to 2020. The findings reveal a significant reduction in trip distance, travel time, and travel frequency after the lockdown, irrespective of whether individuals primarily work from home or in office settings. Notably, EVs, regardless of driver type (WFH or non-WFH), spend more time idle at home, averaging 14 h per day for commuters and 16 h per day for WFH users compared to the pre-pandemic average of 13 h. Prior to the pandemic, only 25% of participants were teleworkers, but this number doubled during the initial lockdown period. Furthermore, an estimated 34% of employees express a desire to continue remote work in the post-lockdown period (Deloitte 2023).

Netherlands (van der Koogh et al. 2023; De Haas et al. 2020)

This work analyses electric charging behaviours of different user groups from January 2020 until October 2022. Overall, the study demonstrates how the pandemic has led to a decline in charging, different start times for charging during the day, and longer connection times. Evidence for a persisting effect of WFH was found, with a clear shift in the timing of charging sessions in the evening, showcasing that strict nine-to-five workplace norms are no longer in place. This shows that EVs spend more time plugged in at home and are used less for commuting. Another study from the Netherlands found that 27% of workers planned to continue working from home after the pandemic. During the pandemic, the amount of trips and distance travelled dropped by 55% and 68% respectively (De Haas et al. 2020).

Germany (Kolarova et al. 2021)

An online survey conducted in Germany shows that around 60% of respondants expect to increase their WFH frequency in the future (Kolarova et al. 2021).

Australia (De-Toledo et al. 2023; Pawluk et al. 2023; Currie et al. 2021; Greaves et al. 2024; Beck et al. 2020; Hensher et al. 2022, 2021, 2021)

One study conducted comprehensive stakeholder interviews in the city of Melbourne and discovered evidence indicating that participants perceive a decrease in work-related travel due to enhanced job flexibility and the option to WFH (De-Toledo et al. 2023). Recent research (Pawluk et al. 2023) has identified the emergence of a “hybrid” work model in Melbourne, characterised by working three days in the office and two days at home. This finding aligns with other recent research conducted in Melbourne, which suggests that WFH will lead to a 6% decrease in total peak hour commuter trips and a 20% decrease in commuter trips to downtown areas (Currie et al. 2021). An additional study, gathering data from Sydney, examined the impacts of Covid-19 and remote working on the transport network. It discovered that over 20% of respondents are working from home for 4–5 days weekly, and more than half are engaging in WFH activities for at least one day per week (Greaves et al. 2024). Similarly, findings presented by Beck et al. indicate that 71% of participants express a preference for more frequent remote working (Beck et al. 2020). Likewise, Hensher et al. conducted research in Australia to explore the disruptions to commuting trips caused by Covid-19. Their results indicate that the rise in WFH has significantly influenced travel behaviour and ought to be incorporated into forthcoming updates of transport models (Hensher et al. 2022, 2021, 2021).