Table 3 Commuter types (Mattioli et al. 2019)

VDC1

This cluster accounts for 23.3% of vehicle-day sequences and is characterised by peaks in car usage during the morning and afternoon periods. The morning and afternoon peaks are slightly later for this cluster compared to other clusters. Some sequences in this cluster do not include any vehicle use in the morning.

VDC2

Similar to VDC1, this cluster (7.9%) also exhibits morning and afternoon peaks of car use. However, the vehicle use in this cluster is more synchronised at specific times in the morning and afternoon. The peaks are slightly later in the day for VDC2. VDC1 and VDC2 have lower overall car travel distance and duration but similar frequency compared to other clusters.

VDC3

This cluster (14.3%) comprises sequences with vehicle use mainly in the mid-afternoon, around 16:00. The degree of synchronisation in this cluster is relatively low, with car use episodes before 12:00 and after 18:00.

VDC4

Vehicle use in this cluster (7.4%) shows a mid-late afternoon peak, and it is more concentrated at a specific time of day (slightly later than VDC3’s peak). Most sequences in this cluster also include some vehicle use in the morning, although it is less synchronised. VDC4 stands out as having the most intensive car travel patterns, as well as the highest average vehicle occupancy.

VDC5

This cluster (13.6%) demonstrates a clear concentration of car use around noon (from 10:00 to 14:00). There is relatively little vehicle use outside of these hours, primarily in the afternoon, and it is not particularly synchronised. VDC5 has the lowest values in terms of travel frequency, duration, and distance.