Table 1 Summary of featured case studies: BEV, infrastructure, Bi-Di services, and revenue
From: Technology and economics of electric vehicle power transfer: insights for the automotive industry
Featured Case Study | BEV and Infrastructure | Bi-Directional Service and EVVC Option(s) | Revenue (BEV/Yr.) |
|---|---|---|---|
Univ of Delaware & Nuvve (2005–22) (Multi-lab EV Smart Grid Integration Requirements Study 2015; Ghatikar 2016; Parkison 2020) | Multiple LD- and MD-BEVs and EVSE configurations; onboard and off-board inverter demonstrations | Individual & fleet V2G (typical 10 kW grid export) for many EVVC options & PJM market commercialization | $1200 to $3400 $2300 Avg |
LBNL LA-AFB (2012–16) (Marnay et al. 2013; Black et al. 2017) | Forty-one mixed-duty BEV fleet (cars, trucks, and vans); 40 EVSEs; off-board inverters (limited data) | Fleet V2G (export) of ± 15 kW for CAISO Regulation markets, & V2B microgrid | $1500 Avg |
U.S. Army Ft. Carson (2013–14) (Multi-lab EV Smart Grid Integration Requirements Study 2015; Kazbour 2014) | 7 BEV trucks with 60 kW onboard inverters; 5 DC EVSEs with ± 60 kW Bi-Di power capacity | Multi-stacked V2G—reactive power (export), peak shaving (non-export), & regulation services (export) | $4320 to $7200 $5760 Avg |
PG&E EPIC (2016–18) (Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) 2018) | Fleet BEV truck w/ 5 kW DC discharge rate; V2H capable EVSE and supporting software | V2H for resiliency and islanding for capacity-bidding and CAISO supply-side pilot | $1400 |
EPRI UCSD (2016–19)(Chhaya et al. 2018) | 5 LD BEV fleet with onboard bi-directional charger; four ± 7.2 kW Level 2 AC EVSEs | V2G services for many EVVC options – peak, ± renewable generation & ramping, & CAISO market participation | $450 to $1850 $1150 Avg |
LBNL Miramar MCAS (2020–22) (Black and Yin 2022) | 6 BEVs passenger and cargo vans with onboard inverters; a total of 6 AC EVSEs of 19 kW each | Fleet V2G (non-export) of ± 15 kW for SDG&E retail DR program, local de mand management, and V2B (microgrid) | $1525 |
Fermata Energy and Partners* (2019–22)(Empower Innovation 2019; N.C. Clean Energy Technology Center (NCCETC) 2021; Fermata Energy, Electric Vehicle Generates Revenue 2022; Fermata Energy Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X)2022) | LD-BEVs Bi-Di charger with an off-board inverter, mostly for Nissan Leaf CHAdeMO standard | V2G (non-export & export) for DR, system peaks, and demand charge mitigation | $1900 to $4200 $3050 Avg |
Peak Power & Partners* (2019–22) (Peak Power, Peak Drive Pilot Project 2019) | Software & data platform for LD-BEVs & third-party Bi-Di chargers with off-board inverter; Nissan Leaf BEV & CHAdeMO | V2G (non-export) to lower peak demand; Utility bill savings from demand charge reduction | $8000 |
Parker Denmark (2016–2019) (Parker Project https://parker-project.com/) | 50 CHAdeMO Bi-Directional DC EVSEs, Nissan Mitsubishi, and Peugeot V2G-enabled BEV fleets | V2G services for frequency regulation and GHG emissions; A total of 13,000 h of Bi-Di services per BEV in frequency regulation | $2046 |
Sciurus UK (2018–21) (Cenex, Project Sciurus Trial Insights 2020; Cenex 2020; Commercial Viability of V2G 2023) | 325 CHAdeMO Bi-Di DC EVSEs with 6 kW charge & discharge; Residential (single phase) V1G and V2G Nissan Leaf BEVs with 30 kWh or more battery capacity | Residential V2G; a total of 750 MWh of V2G energy export through participation in the UK’s spot market prices, frequency, and dynamic containment services | $906 |
Federal Ministry, Germany BDL (2021–2023) Munich (https://www.ffe.de/projekte/bdl/; Kern et al. 2020, 2022) | 30-nos commuter and 20-nos non-Commuter MD- fleet BEVs with different battery capacities, charge/discharge rates; 50 Bi-Di DC EVSEs |  ± 11 kW for V2G service in day-ahead & intraday spot markets; V2H & V2G services for PV self-consumption and price arbitrage | $550 to $1430a $990 Avg |