Table 4 Selected references with focuses on electric vehicle-oriented solutions

Electric Vehicle Charging: Transformer Impacts and Smart, Decentralized Solutions

(Hilshey et al. 2012)

Smart charging as a solution to reduce transformer aging. 2 smart-charging strategies preventing the transformer from overload are compared. The paper uses the transformer as the charge manager at AC level I and II.

An Energy Efficient Solution: Integrating Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle in Smart Grid with Renewable Energy

(Li et al. 2012)

Stochastic programming optimization to solve power management problem and minimize cumulative cost over all stages. 2 cases: optimizing for a system using thermal power plants, wind turbines, and diesel generators; a fleet of plug-in EVs that can be used as energy storage.

Vehicle to grid: electric vehicles as an energy storage solution

(McGee et al. n.d.)

A charging system design that can utilize EV battery capacity as energy storage through V2G. The system has been successfully tested on a fleet of EVs.

Security and privacy of electric vehicles in the smart grid context: problem and solution

(Nicanfar et al. 2013)

Two authentication schemes to preserve customers’ privacy. This paper’s focus is on the security and privacy requirements of EVs in the smart grid especially when the EV acts as energy storage.

Optimal Solution of Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles to Minimize Cost and Emission in a Smart Grid - A Developing Country View

(Ahmad and Sivasubramani 2015)

The paper uses a multi-objective minimization cost and emissions in the smart grid. The integration of EVs in the grid and the V2G concept are in focus.

A Novel ICT Solution for Electric Vehicles Integration on Smart Grids

(Santos et al. 2015)

An ICT architecture that supports an energy management algorithm aiming to optimize the EV charging and storage capabilities accordingly with economical and technical considerations. The energy management algorithm uses dynamic tariffs, electric loads, and end-users’ preferences and comfort requirements.

Adaptive three-phase power-flow solutions for smart grids with plug-in hybrid electric vehicles

(Yang and Tseng 2015)

An adaptive three-phase power flow method. Two solution strategies are used to adapt the network typologies of radial and non-radial smart grid. The method is found to be accurate, efficient, and adaptable in smart grids with EV charging demands. The paper’s focus is on solving the unbalanced power-flow problem in a smart grid having EVs and distributed energy sources.

Can innovative business models overcome resistance to electric vehicles? Better Place and battery electric cars in Denmark

(Budde Christensen et al. 2012)

An innovative business model for EVs to eliminate consumer’s risk of degrading EV battery over time by leasing batteries, coordinating the charging and infrastructure. The consumer subscribes to a fixed mileage limit and charges at the charging spots and battery switching stations. Intelligent charging when electricity price is low and second-life of batteries are considered.

Business models for the integration of electric vehicles into the Austrian energy system

(Rezania and Prüggler 2012)

V2G, Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V), and second life business models. Furthermore, the business models include participation opportunities in the Austrian control market.

Business model of clean energy vehicles industry based on option

(Zhong and You 2012)

Four business models: the whole EV selling model, whole EV leasing model, battery leasing model, and financial leasing model. The paper focuses on the financial leasing model (a finance company purchasing an asset and leases that asset to a client that after the leasing period typically has the opportunity to purchase the asset at a low price). Following aspects are included: a dynamic pricing method; partial differential equation model to describe the financial aspects of the EV price; integral linear programming method; solving model by finite difference method.